This appeared at eltnews.com in May 2001 but I can't find the link anymore ...
Dr. Rob Waring
Notre Dame Seishin University
2-16-9 Ifuku-cho
Okayama 700-0001
Vocabulary instruction is one of the most misunderstood aspects of language learning and language teaching. Research shows that most teachers deal with vocabulary in a haphazard and rather unprincipled way, and most teachers leave the selection of vocabulary to the coursebook. This need not be so. This short article will present a few points that teachers should be aware of when dealing with vocabulary.
Luckily for language teachers and language learners, not all English words need to be learned. We do not have time to teach all the words, nor do we have time to look at many more than a few words in each class. This is extremely important because it means that EVERYTHING we do as vocabulary teachers has to be focused on:
a) building the learner's 'start up' or initial vocabulary,
and
b) developing the learner's understanding of what learning words
means, and
c) showing the learner how to learn the words most effectively.
The ultimate aim, of course, is to develop the learners as independent word learners.
Which words?
Research shows that learners need about 3000 'word families' to be good at
English. (A 'word family' is a group of words that share the same meaning such
as 'help', 'helping' 'helped 'helpless' etc.). Teachers should concentrate on
the most frequent and useful words first, as it is these words the learners will
meet very often. Here
is a link to list of very useful words which you can download and use
with your learners. (Both Peter and Setsuko seem to be against
word lists and rote memorization, but it is a very important stage
in vocabulary learning, as we shall see below). Many teachers
focus on rarer words assuming that the basic words like 'get',
'make' and 'bring' are known. But it is these words which are
among the most troublesome, with their multiple meanings and idiomatic
uses. Therefore, teachers and learners should work VERY hard on
the highly frequent words.
But what is a word?
We all know 'traffic' is a word, but is 'traffic light' one
word, or two? 'Traffic light' has a single meaning which is different
from that of 'traffic' and 'light' but it is made up of two 'words'.
How about 'by and large' and 'the day after tomorrow', or 'how
do you do?' and 'of course'? All languages are full of short
phrases made up of several words, or chunks of language, and teachers
should focus on these as well as the 'word' itself.
Words are almost never found in isolation, they nearly always have partners that together form meanings in certain restricted ways. For example, we say 'beautiful woman' or 'handsome man' but we do not usually say a 'beautiful man'. The same goes for 'black and white' (not 'white and black'), or 'here and there' (not 'there and here' - but achi kochi in Japanese). These word relationships, often called collocations, are very important for learners. If learners do not know these word relationships then they will sound strange and say things like 'weak cheese' (mild cheese) or 'yesterday night' (last night). Thus, in order to speak and write well, teachers need to introduce lots of word relationships not only single words, and learners need to be taught how to notice word relationships on their own.
How should learners learn vocabulary?
The most fundamental idea that should underlie any method is that
'the most important vocabulary to work on, is that the learners
learned yesterday'. The nature of human memory dictates that
vocabulary (like all item and system learning) will probably be
forgotten, especially if the word has just been met. Peter demonstrates
this point well with his 'car parts lesson'. Vocabulary loss happens
because it is at the initial stage of word learning that word
knowledge is so fragile. This means that words and phrases need
to be recycled often to cement them in memory. Introducing a
word and not recycling or revisiting it, means that it is highly
likely that it will be forgotten. Coursebooks are usually very
bad at recycling, so the teacher must work out ways to recycle
the vocabulary that is introduced in the course book.
Stages in word learning
There are two main stages in learning words. The first stage
is achieved when a connection is made between the meaning and
the form (its spelling or pronunciation) of the word. The second
stage is much more difficult and involves knowing when to use
the word (and not use it), its word relationships, its shades
of meanings, and so on. The first stage of learning a word is
quite easy and some ideas how to do this are presented below.
This can be done most effectively by rote memorization such as
by using word cards (the word on one side of a piece of paper,
and its translation on the other). Research dating back over
100 years clearly shows that this is VERY effective (if not very
enjoyable) and learners can learn hundreds of words very quickly
especially if mnemonics or memory tricks are used. Many people
misunderstand this kind of learning saying it is boring and behaviorist.
Indeed many teachers misunderstand this too by forcing their learners
to learn only in this way, which made life very difficult
for Setsuko. True, rote learning can be boring and tiresome, but
it IS very effective if done in a principled and systematic way.
Later we shall look again at strategies to deal with both stages
of word learning.
Learning with or without context?
One question that is often asked, is whether words should be learned
with context (e.g. from reading) or without (e.g. in a word list).
My answer is both. Many teachers, such as Setsuko, suggest that
words be learned only in context. Typical reasons given for this
are that it is more 'natural', or more 'enjoyable' and that words
are met with their collocates and derive meaning and nuances from
these relationships and thus words should be learned in the context
with which they are found. This is all true, and at this level
I agree with Setsuko. However, research also shows that rote
learning is several times faster than learning from context (i.e.
from just reading lots of books) and it would be a good idea if
we could use this rote learning to build a quick 'start up' vocabulary
for our learners. Learners need lots of vocabulary at the early
stages so they can work out the patterns in the language. The
important point to remember is that the rote learning part is
only the initial stage and MUCH more work should be done to deepen
this knowledge. However, rote learning can quickly empower learners
to have a command of several hundred words within a few weeks
(Research shows this is easily within the reach of most learners
if the learning is systematic and principled). One very effective
way to use the rote memory capacity of our brains is to use 'word
cards'.
In defence of rote learning - the effective use of word
cards and rote memorization
'Word cards' are pieces of paper with the English on one side
and a translation or picture on the other. Learners are given
a list of words which they need to learn (highly frequent, useful
and common words) and they make word cards for the words they
do not know. It is useful to test the learners on these words
first so they will find out which words they do not know. The
learning needs to be systematic because learning is better that
way. This is how it is done. First, the learner breaks the whole
pack of word cards into manageable groups of about 8-12 words
per set (words starting with the same letter, or that are similar
in meaning or sound to other words in the group, should be avoided
as this can interfere with learning). Secondly, the learners number
each set. Then the learner learns words from set 1 by looking
at one side of the card and trying to recall the other. This forces
retrieval of the meaning (whereas learning from a list does not,
as both the word and its meaning can be seen). Then the learner
looks to see if the recall is correct or not. Words that are known
are put in one pile, the words that are not recalled are put on
the other. When she has gone through the full first set of words
one time, the learner picks up the words that were not recalled
and tries again. As before, the words that are recalled go on
the 'recalled' pile and those that are not go back to the 'unrecalled
pile'. The learner works like this until the whole of set 1 is
known. Then, set 1 is put to one side and the same procedure
is done with set 2. Set 2 is then put to one side.
The next bit is the important step and the one that is most often missed. The learner should now go back to set 1 and recall them again. This is essential because of the steep forgetting curve that is a natural part of the way our short-term, or working, memory (doesn't) work. If the learner goes to set 3 without returning to set 1, the learner will be starting to forget words in set 1, so she MUST return to it. Each time a set is picked up it is important to shuffle the order of the words in the set and to learn from English to the mother tongue, and vice versa. When she has re-learned set 1, she goes back to set 2 and only then on to set 3. The important part is to always go back to the start and go through the sets and only introduce a new set once all the others prior in the sequence have all been recalled. This is called scaffolding' one's knowledge. Thus the sequence is
1,2 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ...... etc.
Note that as the number of sets being learned increases, there is greater time gap between the return to set 1. This is perfect because our memory works best by 'increased spaced rehearsal' (ie greater and greater time between subsequent recalls) because it tends to reinforce it into longer term memory. Just learning 100 words in one big pile will lead to little learning as there is no scaffolding and no 'increased spaced rehearsal' and forgetting is high and boredom soon sets in. Most learners who use word cards do not learn in the correct way and it is here that word card learning can fail. By using small sets of words each little 'goal' can be quickly achieved and this gives a positive sense of achievement. Once set 1 has been completely remembered say 5 or 6 times, it can be safely called 'learned' - but only at the initial stage of word learning. Now the learner needs to deepen this knowledge and meet it time and time again in context (see below).
Why word card learning is better than list learning
Many learners try to learn words in lists which is much less ineffective
than word card learning. List learning is probably what 99% of
people think of when they think of rote learning, and it is list
learning which gives rote learning a bad name!!
List learning is not as powerful as word card learning for several reasons. Firstly, it is systematic and system is key to effective learning. Haphazard learning, such as from reading or a coursebook, is much less focused and effective. Secondly, with word cards, learners can set learning targets and measure and see their own progress over time. Thus it is highly advisable to require learners to keep records of which sets they are learning so they can keep track of where they are and how well they are achieving their goals. It is very important for the teacher to get the learner to set her own learning goals and determine her own rate of recycling. Goals that are too ambitious initially will soon fail, so a modest target is best. Thirdly, the learning is motor-manual. It is well known that the more parts of the brain we use when doing an activity increases the chances of learning. Fourthly, it is not serial in nature (i.e. words are not recalled in order as in a list) because words can be shuffled and moved between packs if need be (problems words can be moved to set one for extra practice, for example). Learning in the same order (serial learning) such as from a list is a problem because often learners know some words and not others and waste time meeting ones they already know. But with word cards, learners are only giving each word the right amount of attention it needs. Moreover, when working with lists, learners can often remember the next word on the list before they even see it. Fifthly, list learning tends to be bound by the type of activity it is. Studies show that people can remember well in lists, but do not recall well in tests that are not a list of words. The old adage says 'learn it in a list and you shall only remember it in a list'. This seems to be less so for word card learning.
Sure, learners will complain about how long it takes to make word cards and teachers may be reluctant to require learners to do this work, but what is the alternative? The alternative is slow haphazard acquisition of vocabulary and high rate of forgetting leading to boredom and disinterest in English. Worse still, is that it instills or reinforces a culture of failure to achieve in English, which can dampen any desire to learn.
The bad news (for the learner)
Of course, the teacher MUST test the learners on the words, or
the learners will not do it. I test them till they hate me (well
not quite) - I'm not in a popularity contest, but I AM paid to
make them learn. Even the most highly motivated learners may
take time to adjust to this system, but once it is a habit, learning
is fast, effective and efficient. However, there is some good
news.
The good news
As time passes, learners will know more and more words and
will have built a 'start up' vocabulary. They will be meeting
these words in their coursebooks and readings and the teacher
can start to de-emphasize rote learning and spend much more time
on vocabulary learning strategies and other activities to deepen
the knowledge of the 'start up' vocabulary.
How do learners deepen their knowledge of words?
This can be done by word study exercises and by mountains of graded reading.
There is a free downloadable introduction to Graded Reading published by Oxford
University Press in
English or
Japanese.
Research also shows that learners learn best when they are made actively involved in word learning and at different levels of mental activity. If a learner just repeats a word over and over, the processing is quite shallow because it is just maintaining knowledge. Thus writing the word out time and time again will lead to little learning. Learners should be trained to work with words deeply, by working with the collocates, looking at how the word is similar but different from other words, by forming 'networks' of word relationships in their minds and not just keeping words in isolation. Thus, learners must be given chances to notice new words for themselves, and made to hypothesize about the meaning of new words. They should also be given chances to experiment with their hypotheses by producing the new words in speech or writing. Only by experimenting will they know if the learning has been successful. Thus teachers should try not to just present the meaning of a word to a learner, but let the learner work it out for herself, with guidance where necessary.
Learning exercises must not only teach learners new things about words. They should also, as part of their agenda, be training the learner to become independent. This means that exercises should not only teach but also make learners aware of the nature of vocabulary and how words go together. Endless fill-the-blank exercises do not achieve this aim because basically they are tests and are not developing skills and strategies for how to deal with vocabulary. The same goes for close exercises or crossword puzzles and other exercises like them. These are only tests, and unless they are used wisely, these exercises are not expanding a learner's world. Remember the 3 points that vocabulary teachers should always have in their mind that were presented at the beginning of this article. The aim of every exercise should always be to make the learner more and more an independent as a word learner, not more and more dependent on the teacher's or dictionary's knowledge.
Guessing from context - the most important vocabulary learning
strategy
By far the most important vocabulary strategy to teach is
to 'guess unknown words from context'. When you learned your
first language, most of the words were not taught to you, you
picked them up from books, the TV and from conversations. There
is not enough time to teach thousands of words one by one in class,
so language learners must also know how to guess unknown words
successfully. Sadly, many teachers just expect learners to know
how to guess well, but there are thousands of learners who could
be helped to be more successful at guessing. So how is it best
done?
The first thing to do when a learner meets a new word is to ignore it. If it is important it will come again. If they meet the word a second time and communication breaks down, then they should try to guess its meaning. Initially, it is important to make them notice its part of speech, and then they should look for clues around the word to help with the meaning. If they have an idea, they should try to substitute their guess into the sentence to see if the meaning of the sentence is clear. They will soon realize if they have the wrong part of speech, or wrong meaning. Finally, they can use word affix knowledge to confirm the guess (they shouldn't start with affix knowledge as their guessing strategy otherwise they will make many mistakes e.g. 'antiwar' means 'against war', but 'anticipate' does not lead to 'against cipate'.)
However, it is vital to understand when teaching learners to guess words from context that they will not be able to guess successfully until they know about 95-98% of the other words in the text. If the text is too difficult, then the large number of unknown words will make successful guessing much less likely. Therefore, it is wide to not start teaching this strategy too early in the learning process, because the learners will not know enough other words to guess successfully. Starting too early leads to too much failure and can reinforce the idea that word learning is difficult.
Finally
It should always be remembered that 'teaching does not cause
learning' so teachers should expect learners to not understand
sometimes and they should not expect learners to remember every
word they teach. The aims of vocabulary instruction then should
be to create the conditions where the learner can learn independently
of the teacher. The ultimate aim of any teaching is to enable
the learner to get to a position in which she does not need us
anymore. Thus, teachers should teach vocabulary learning strategies,
such as 'how to use a dictionary well'; 'how to learn words systematically';
'how to keep vocabulary notebooks' and so on.
If teachers can do some of these things, learners will benefit more from their classes and will not only remember more words, but will be on the road to becoming independent vocabulary learners.
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